Inflammatory and Endothelial Dysfunction Markers and Proteinuria in Persons with Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus
Objective
We examined the relationship of inflammatory and endothelial dysfunction markers with the prevalence and incidence of gross proteinuria in persons with type 1 diabetes.
Design
A longitudinal population based cohort of persons with type 1 diabetes was followed from 1990–1992 through 2005–2007.
Methods
Prevalence and 15-year cumulative incidence of gross proteinuria were defined as outcome variables. Serum high sensitivity C-reactive protein (hsCRP), interleukin-6 (IL-6), tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF- α), soluble vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 (VCAM-1), soluble intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1), and serum total homocysteine were measured. Multivariate logistic and discrete linear logistic regression modeling was used for data analysis.
Results
After controlling for duration of diabetes and other confounding factors, TNF-α (Odds Ratio [OR] 3.64; 95% Confidence Interval [CI] 2.33, 5.70), IL-6 (OR 1.41; 95% CI 1.06, 1.88), VCAM-1 (OR 15.82; 95% CI 1.71, 33.30) and homocysteine (OR 5.25; 95% CI 3.40, 8.13) were associated with prevalent proteinuria. Only hsCRP (OR 1.47; 95% CI 1.02, 2.11) was associated with incident proteinuria.
Conclusions
These findings suggest a role of inflammation and endothelial dysfunction as markers and contributors of the development of diabetic nephropathy in persons with type 1 diabetes mellitus.
Introduction
Nephropathy contributes to excess morbidity and mortality in people with diabetes (1, 2). A number of factors such as hyperglycemia, longer diabetes duration, high blood pressure and high serum lipid levels have been shown to be associated with the development and progression of diabetic nephropathy (1–4). However, they explain only a limited amount of risk of developing diabetic nephropathy.
Inflammation and endothelial dysfunction have been hypothesized to play a role in the pathogenesis of diabetic nephropathy (5–8). However, only one population based study described the relationship of inflammatory and endothelial dysfunction markers to the incidence of nephropathy in persons with type 1 diabetes mellitus (8). Thus, it is not clear if inflammation and/or endothelial dysfunction are primary consequences of the progression of diabetic nephropathy or contributors to it. The purpose of our study was to investigate the association between inflammatory and endothelial dysfunction markers and the prevalence and 15-year cumulative incidence of gross proteinuria (GP) in a cohort of persons with type 1 diabetes mellitus.
Materials and Methods
Study Population
The population consisted of a sample of 1210 persons with type 1 diabetes mellitus who received primary care in an 11-county area in southern Wisconsin from 1979 to 1980 (9, 10). Of these, 996 participated in the baseline examination (1980–1982), 903 in the 4-year follow-up (1984–1986), 816 in the 10-year follow-up (1990–1992), 667 in the 14-year follow-up (1994–1996), 567 in the 20-year follow-up (2000–2002) and 520 in the 25-year follow-up (2005–2007) (9–12). The main reason for nonparticipation was death (9–12). Comparisons between participants and nonparticipants at the various examinations have been presented elsewhere (9–12). Frozen serum was available from the time of the 10-year examination in 1990–1992. Analyses in this report are limited to 795 persons who were examined at the 10-year examination, had frozen serum available from that examination, and had information about hypertension at the 14-year (1994–1996) and/or 20-year (2000–2002) and/or 25-year (2005–2007) follow-up examinations.
Procedures
The examinations were performed in a mobile examination van in or near the city where the participants resided. Informed consent was obtained from participants, and all examinations followed a similar protocol that was approved by the institutional Human Subjects Committee of the University of Wisconsin and conformed to the tenets of the Declaration of Helsinki. A structured interview and examinations were conducted by trained examiners.
At the time of the 10-year follow-up examination, an aliquot of whole blood was used for determination of the glycosylated hemoglobin level using affinity chromatography (13). The normal range for glycosylated hemoglobin A1 was 4.6% to 7.9%, and its intra-assay coefficient of variation was 2.4%. Serum was used to measure total and high density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol. The remaining serum for 674 persons was stored without preservative at −80°C in cryogenic vials with O-rings for up to 16 years until the vials were shipped on dry ice to the University of Minnesota laboratory for the analyses reported herein. An aliquot of serum was used for determination of high sensitivity C-reactive protein (hsCRP), interleukin-6 (IL-6), tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), endothelial dysfunction markers (soluble vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 [VCAM-1] and soluble intercellular adhesion molecule-1 [ICAM-1]) and serum total homocysteine.
The level of hsCRP was measured on the Hitachi 911 (Roche Diagnostics, Indianapolis, IN) using the CRP K-Assay©, a particle enhanced immunonephelometric assay (Kamiya Biomedical Company, Seattle, WA). IL-6, TNF-α, VCAM-1, and ICAM-1 were measured by ELISA assays employing quantitative sandwich enzyme immunoassay techniques. IL-6 was measured using the Quantikine HS Human IL-6 Immunoassay Kit (R&D Systems, Minneapolis, MN). TNF-α was measured using the QuantiGlo Chemiluminescent ELISA kit (R&D Systems, Minneapolis, MN). Soluble VCAM-1 was measured using the Quantikine Human sVCAM-1 Immunoassay kit (R&D Systems, Minneapolis, MN). Soluble ICAM-1 was measured using the Quantikine Human sICAM-1 Immunoassay kit (R&D Systems, Minneapolis, MN). Serum total homocysteine was measured by a fluorescence polarization immunoassay (IMx Homocysteine Assay, Axis Biochemicals ASA, Oslo, Norway) using the IMx Analyzer (Abbott Diagnostics, Abbott Park, IL).
Single voided, casual, fresh urine samples were collected for the determination of proteinuria at all examinations; GP was measured using a reagent strip (Labstix, Ames Division, Miles Inc, Elkhart, IN).
Definitions
We defined GP as having urinary protein concentrations of greater than 0.3 g/L. Cumulative incidence of GP was defined as being present at any follow-up examination in persons in whom it was absent at the 1990–1992 Wisconsin Epidemiologic Study of Diabetic Retinopathy (WESDR) examination. Persons were categorized as non-smokers, ex-smokers or current smokers. Hypertension status was defined as normotensive if a participant did not have a history of hypertension and the systolic blood pressure was <140 mmHg and diastolic blood pressure was <90 mmHg, hypertensive with blood pressure controlled if a participant had a history of hypertension and the systolic blood pressure was <140 mmHg and diastolic blood pressure was <90 mmHg, and hypertensive with blood pressure uncontrolled if a participant had a history of hypertension and the systolic blood pressure was ≥140 mmHg and/or diastolic blood pressure was ≥90 mmHg. Age was defined as the age at the time of the 1990–1992 examination. The duration of diabetes was that period between the age at diagnosis and the age at the 1990–1992 examination. BMI was defined as weight in kg divided by height in m. Total family income was defined as low (<$30,000/year) or not low (≥$30,000/year) at the 1990–1992 examination. A person was defined as having a history of cardiovascular disease, ketoacidosis or neuropathy at the 1990–1992 based on a history of these conditions. Cardiovascular disease history was defined based on the participant's history of angina, myocardial infarction or stroke. Neuropathy was defined as either a self-reported history of loss of tactile or temperature sensitivity or both. Severity of retinopathy was determined by grading of the fundus photographs by means of a modified Airlie House classification scheme as further adapted for the WESDR follow-up examinations (14).
Statistical Methods
The distributions of the inflammatory and endothelial dysfunction markers were highly skewed. Therefore, we performed logarithmic transformation of these variables to use as a continuous exposure variable in the analyses.
Statistical methods included calculations of means and frequencies and performing multivariate logistic regression and discrete linear logistic regression analysis. Age, gender, total family income, diabetes duration, hypertension, history of neuropathy, serum total cholesterol and glycosylated hemoglobin levels were considered confounding variables. Only one inflammatory or endothelial dysfunction marker was included in each model because they were highly correlated. Relationships of inflammation and endothelial dysfunction markers to the prevalence or incidence of GP were examined in separate multivariate logistic regression models. Cumulative 15-year incidence of GP was determined using the Kaplan-Meier approach accounting for the competing risk of death; relation of inflammation and endothelial dysfunction markers to incident GP was determined using a proportional hazards approach with discrete linear logistic regression modeling. Proportional hazards assumption was tested for all models. Stratified or time-dependent Cox regression analyses were performed to adjust for assumed violation of proportional hazards assumption. All models were tested for multicollinearity and interaction.
Study Population
The population consisted of a sample of 1210 persons with type 1 diabetes mellitus who received primary care in an 11-county area in southern Wisconsin from 1979 to 1980 (9, 10). Of these, 996 participated in the baseline examination (1980–1982), 903 in the 4-year follow-up (1984–1986), 816 in the 10-year follow-up (1990–1992), 667 in the 14-year follow-up (1994–1996), 567 in the 20-year follow-up (2000–2002) and 520 in the 25-year follow-up (2005–2007) (9–12). The main reason for nonparticipation was death (9–12). Comparisons between participants and nonparticipants at the various examinations have been presented elsewhere (9–12). Frozen serum was available from the time of the 10-year examination in 1990–1992. Analyses in this report are limited to 795 persons who were examined at the 10-year examination, had frozen serum available from that examination, and had information about hypertension at the 14-year (1994–1996) and/or 20-year (2000–2002) and/or 25-year (2005–2007) follow-up examinations.
Procedures
The examinations were performed in a mobile examination van in or near the city where the participants resided. Informed consent was obtained from participants, and all examinations followed a similar protocol that was approved by the institutional Human Subjects Committee of the University of Wisconsin and conformed to the tenets of the Declaration of Helsinki. A structured interview and examinations were conducted by trained examiners.
At the time of the 10-year follow-up examination, an aliquot of whole blood was used for determination of the glycosylated hemoglobin level using affinity chromatography (13). The normal range for glycosylated hemoglobin A1 was 4.6% to 7.9%, and its intra-assay coefficient of variation was 2.4%. Serum was used to measure total and high density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol. The remaining serum for 674 persons was stored without preservative at −80°C in cryogenic vials with O-rings for up to 16 years until the vials were shipped on dry ice to the University of Minnesota laboratory for the analyses reported herein. An aliquot of serum was used for determination of high sensitivity C-reactive protein (hsCRP), interleukin-6 (IL-6), tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), endothelial dysfunction markers (soluble vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 [VCAM-1] and soluble intercellular adhesion molecule-1 [ICAM-1]) and serum total homocysteine.
The level of hsCRP was measured on the Hitachi 911 (Roche Diagnostics, Indianapolis, IN) using the CRP K-Assay©, a particle enhanced immunonephelometric assay (Kamiya Biomedical Company, Seattle, WA). IL-6, TNF-α, VCAM-1, and ICAM-1 were measured by ELISA assays employing quantitative sandwich enzyme immunoassay techniques. IL-6 was measured using the Quantikine HS Human IL-6 Immunoassay Kit (R&D Systems, Minneapolis, MN). TNF-α was measured using the QuantiGlo Chemiluminescent ELISA kit (R&D Systems, Minneapolis, MN). Soluble VCAM-1 was measured using the Quantikine Human sVCAM-1 Immunoassay kit (R&D Systems, Minneapolis, MN). Soluble ICAM-1 was measured using the Quantikine Human sICAM-1 Immunoassay kit (R&D Systems, Minneapolis, MN). Serum total homocysteine was measured by a fluorescence polarization immunoassay (IMx Homocysteine Assay, Axis Biochemicals ASA, Oslo, Norway) using the IMx Analyzer (Abbott Diagnostics, Abbott Park, IL).
Single voided, casual, fresh urine samples were collected for the determination of proteinuria at all examinations; GP was measured using a reagent strip (Labstix, Ames Division, Miles Inc, Elkhart, IN).
Definitions
We defined GP as having urinary protein concentrations of greater than 0.3 g/L. Cumulative incidence of GP was defined as being present at any follow-up examination in persons in whom it was absent at the 1990–1992 Wisconsin Epidemiologic Study of Diabetic Retinopathy (WESDR) examination. Persons were categorized as non-smokers, ex-smokers or current smokers. Hypertension status was defined as normotensive if a participant did not have a history of hypertension and the systolic blood pressure was <140 mmHg and diastolic blood pressure was <90 mmHg, hypertensive with blood pressure controlled if a participant had a history of hypertension and the systolic blood pressure was <140 mmHg and diastolic blood pressure was <90 mmHg, and hypertensive with blood pressure uncontrolled if a participant had a history of hypertension and the systolic blood pressure was ≥140 mmHg and/or diastolic blood pressure was ≥90 mmHg. Age was defined as the age at the time of the 1990–1992 examination. The duration of diabetes was that period between the age at diagnosis and the age at the 1990–1992 examination. BMI was defined as weight in kg divided by height in m. Total family income was defined as low (<$30,000/year) or not low (≥$30,000/year) at the 1990–1992 examination. A person was defined as having a history of cardiovascular disease, ketoacidosis or neuropathy at the 1990–1992 based on a history of these conditions. Cardiovascular disease history was defined based on the participant's history of angina, myocardial infarction or stroke. Neuropathy was defined as either a self-reported history of loss of tactile or temperature sensitivity or both. Severity of retinopathy was determined by grading of the fundus photographs by means of a modified Airlie House classification scheme as further adapted for the WESDR follow-up examinations (14).
Statistical Methods
The distributions of the inflammatory and endothelial dysfunction markers were highly skewed. Therefore, we performed logarithmic transformation of these variables to use as a continuous exposure variable in the analyses.
Statistical methods included calculations of means and frequencies and performing multivariate logistic regression and discrete linear logistic regression analysis. Age, gender, total family income, diabetes duration, hypertension, history of neuropathy, serum total cholesterol and glycosylated hemoglobin levels were considered confounding variables. Only one inflammatory or endothelial dysfunction marker was included in each model because they were highly correlated. Relationships of inflammation and endothelial dysfunction markers to the prevalence or incidence of GP were examined in separate multivariate logistic regression models. Cumulative 15-year incidence of GP was determined using the Kaplan-Meier approach accounting for the competing risk of death; relation of inflammation and endothelial dysfunction markers to incident GP was determined using a proportional hazards approach with discrete linear logistic regression modeling. Proportional hazards assumption was tested for all models. Stratified or time-dependent Cox regression analyses were performed to adjust for assumed violation of proportional hazards assumption. All models were tested for multicollinearity and interaction.
Results
Of the 795 people examined at the 1990–1992 baseline examination, 744 had information on proteinuria status, and 201 (27.0%) had GP. Of the 543 people without proteinuria, 112 (20.6%) were alive but not examined at follow-up due to refusal or moving out of area and unable to return for an examination, and 47 (8.7%) died, leaving 384 (70.7%) people for incidence analysis.
Characteristics of the population by GP status at the baseline examination are presented in Table 1. People with GP at baseline had a longer duration of diabetes, higher mean glycosylated hemoglobin and serum total cholesterol levels, were more likely to be male, have lower income, and have more frequent history of ketoacidosis and neuropathy than those without GP (Table 1). Additionally, people with GP had higher levels of all inflammatory or endothelial dysfunction markers than those without GP, except for hsCRP. People without GP had a lower frequency of history of cardiovascular disease and uncontrolled hypertension. We did not find any associations of age, BMI, or smoking status with GP.
Table 1
Baseline Characteristics by Gross Proteinuria Status at the 1990–1992 Wisconsin Epidemiologic Study of Diabetic Retinopathy Examination.
| Characteristic | Gross Proteinuria Present (n=201)* | No Proteinuria (n=543)* | P-value |
|---|---|---|---|
| Age (yrs), mean ± SD | 37.5 ± 11.0 | 36.8 ± 11.9 | 0.5 |
| Males, N (%) | 115 (57.2) | 249 (49.5) | 0.006 |
| Family income, N (%) | |||
| <$30,000 | 109 (57.1) | 229 (47.4) | 0.02 |
| BMI, N (%) | |||
| 25–29 kg/m2 | 69 (37.5) | 212 (42.0) | 0.6 |
| ≥30 kg/m2 | 26 (14.1) | 65 (12.9) | |
| Smoking history, N (%) | |||
| Ex-smoker | 48 (24.1) | 120 (22.2) | 0.8 |
| Current smoker | 42 (21.1) | 112 (20.7) | |
| Diabetes duration (yrs), mean ± SD | 23.8 ± 8.5 | 22.4 ± 9.6 | 0.06 |
| Glycosylated hemoglobin A1 (%), mean ± SD | 10.5 ± 1.7 | 9.8 ± 1.7 | <0.001 |
| Retinopathy history, N (%) | <0.0001 | ||
| Mild | 33 (16.7) | 261 (48.2) | |
| Moderate | 30 (15.2) | 96 (17.7) | |
| Proliferative diabetic retinopathy | 134 (67.7) | 152 (28.1) | |
| Neuropathy history, N (%) | 80 (39.8) | 116 (21.4) | <0.001 |
| Ketoacidosis history, N (%) | 33 (16.7) | 52 (9.65) | 0.009 |
| Hypertension BP controlled, N (%) | 58 (30.4) | 59 (11.7) | <0.001 |
| Hypertension BP uncontrolled, N (%) | 39 (20.4) | 29 (5.77) | |
| Cardiovascular disease history, N (%) | 23 (11.7) | 39 (7.22) | 0.05 |
| Serum total cholesterol value (mg/dL), mean ± SD | 217.6 ± 54.8 | 189.4 ± 4.0 | <0.001 |
| Serum | |||
| hsCRP (mg/L)† | 1.6 (3.5–120.2) | 1.4 (2.80–174.7) | 0.11 |
| IL-6 (pg/mL)† | 1.9 (1.8–53.9) | 1.5 (1.33–78.4) | <0.0001 |
| VCAM-1 (ng/mL)† | 945.8 (328.3–1866) | 806.3 (255.0–1189.0) | <0.0001 |
| ICAM-1 (ng/mL)† | 306.2 (72.4–397.9) | 298.5 (81.8–62.6) | 0.02 |
| TNF-α (pg/mL)† | 3.1 (2.2–9.6) | 1.9 (1.3–26.3) | <0.0001 |
| Homocysteine (μmol/L)† | 12.5 (6.5–62.1) | 9.0 (3.8–37.4) | <0.0001 |
Abbreviations: BP, blood pressure; hsCRP, high sensitivity C-reactive protein; IL-6, interleukin-6; VCAM-1, soluble vascular cell adhesion molecule-1; ICAM-1, soluble intercellular adhesion molecule-1; TNF-α, tumor necrosis factor alpha.
Analysis of cross-sectional associations between the levels of inflammatory and endothelial dysfunction markers and GP are shown in Table 2. Multivariate logistic analysis revealed that serum TNF-α, IL-6, VCAM-1 and homocysteine levels were cross-sectionally associated with GP (Table 2).
Table 2
Relationship of Inflammatory and Endothelial Dysfunction Markers and Prevalence of Gross Proteinuria at the 1990–1992 Wisconsin Epidemiologic Study of Diabetic Retinopathy Examination.
| Prevalent Gross Proteinuria | Incident Gross Proteinuria | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Crude OR | Adjusted OR† | Crude OR | Adjusted OR† | |
| Markers* | (95% CI) | (95% CI) | (95% CI) | (95% CI) |
| hsCRP (mg/L) | 1.12 (0.97, 1.29) | 1.04 (0.87, 1.25) | 1.41 (1.06, 1.86) | 1.47 (1.02, 2.11) |
| IL-6 (pg/mL) | 1.54 (1.23, 1.94) | 1.41 (1.06, 1.88) | 1.47 (1.05, 2.05) | 1.44 (0.87, 2.39) |
| VCAM-1 (ng/mL) | 15.82 (1.71, 33.30) | 13.35 (5.39, 33.07) | 4.96 (1.28, 19.25) | 4.62 (0.98, 21.67) |
| ICAM-1 (ng/mL) | 2.35 (1.08, 5.13) | 1.80 (0.72, 4.46) | 3.32 (1.07, 10.28) | 1.40 (0.28, 7.05) |
| TNF-α (pg/mL) | 4.62 (3.19, 6.71) | 3.64 (2.33, 5.70) | 1.62 (1.02, 2.57) | 1.57 (0.77, 3.19) |
| Homocysteine (μmol/L) | 5.25 (3.40, 8.13) | 2.98 (1.73, 5.16) | 2.23 (1.16, 4.28) | 2.41 (0.75, 7.78) |
Abbreviations: OR, odds ratio; CI, confidence interval; hsCRP, high sensitivity C-reactive protein; IL-6, interleukin-6; VCAM-1, soluble vascular cell adhesion molecule-1; ICAM-1, soluble intercellular adhesion molecule-1; TNF-α, tumor necrosis factor alpha.
The 15-year cumulative incidence of GP was 40.2%. After controlling for age and other confounding variables, only serum hsCRP was significantly associated with incident GP (Table 2).
Discussion
While controlling for age and other factors, we found statistically significant cross-sectional associations of serum TNF-α, IL-6, VCAM-1 and homocysteine with GP and of hsCRP with the 15-year cumulative incidence of GP in persons with type 1 diabetes mellitus. Our findings are consistent with previously reported cross-sectional associations of inflammatory and endothelial dysfunction markers with nephropathy in persons with type 1 and type 2 diabetes (5, 6, 15).
While controlling for other factors, all the inflammatory and endothelial dysfunction markers had higher odds of developing GP; however, only the association of serum C-reactive protein with GP was statistically significant in our study. A similar longitudinal association of hsCRP with urinary albumin excretion was reported in patients with type 2 diabetes (16). High levels of circulating hsCRP may deposit in the glomerular endothelium and cytoplasm of tubules. It is not clear whether such deposits result in damage to the glomerulus and interstitial fibrosis (17, 18). We speculate that the inflammatory process may be a result of and be involved in the pathogenesis of nephropathy in persons with type 1 diabetes mellitus. Circulating hsCRP may be an indicator of inflammation and endothelial cell activation in these patients.
While controlling for other risk factors, serum homocysteine was statistically significantly associated only with higher odds of prevalent GP. This is consistent with the finding that higher homocysteine levels are cross-sectionally associated with higher urinary albumin excretion rates (19, 20). However, data from experimental and observational studies showed no evidence of relationship of homocysteine level and progression of nephropathy (21). These findings suggest that elevated serum homocysteine levels are more likely a result of diabetic nephropathy rather than a cause.
While our study has many strengths, including the long-term follow-up, high participation rate of a well characterized cohort of persons with type 1 diabetes mellitus and the use of standardized protocols to measure risk factors and nephropathy, it also has some limitations. First, the small number of nonwhite participants may limit the ability to generalize our findings to other ethnic groups. Second, it is possible that selective survival (persons with higher levels of inflammatory and endothelial dysfunction who developed kidney disease were less likely to be seen in follow-up than persons who did not develop kidney disease due to higher mortality) resulted in underestimation of the relationship between these markers and the incidence of GP. Third, we did not measure the total amount of protein in a 24-hour urine collection test or measure the protein/creatinine ratio. Our measurement of proteinuria in a random sample using a reagent strip may have resulted in misclassification reducing our ability to detect associations of markers with proteinuria. However, a positive dipstick has been reported to have a sensitivity of 100% and a specificity of 82% (22), suggesting the bias to be small.
In summary, independent of blood pressure, glycemia and other confounders, we found strong associations of some inflammatory and endothelial dysfunction markers with prevalent and incident GP in persons with type 1 diabetes mellitus. It remains to be seen if reduction in inflammation would have a beneficial effect on the incidence of nephropathy in persons with type 1 diabetes mellitus.
Acknowledgments
Funding This work was supported by the National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, USA (number {"type":"entrez-nucleotide","attrs":{"text":"EY016379","term_id":"159080554","term_text":"EY016379"}}EY016379, to R.K. and B.E.K.K.; number {"type":"entrez-nucleotide","attrs":{"text":"DK073217","term_id":"187393690","term_text":"DK073217"}}DK073217, to R.K.); and by the American Diabetes Association, Alexandria, Virginia, USA (Mentor-Based Postdoctoral Fellowship Award, to R.K.).
Abstract
Objective
We examined the relationship of inflammatory and endothelial dysfunction markers with the prevalence and incidence of gross proteinuria in persons with type 1 diabetes.
Design
A longitudinal population based cohort of persons with type 1 diabetes was followed from 1990–1992 through 2005–2007.
Methods
Prevalence and 15-year cumulative incidence of gross proteinuria were defined as outcome variables. Serum high sensitivity C-reactive protein (hsCRP), interleukin-6 (IL-6), tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF- α), soluble vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 (VCAM-1), soluble intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1), and serum total homocysteine were measured. Multivariate logistic and discrete linear logistic regression modeling was used for data analysis.
Results
After controlling for duration of diabetes and other confounding factors, TNF-α (Odds Ratio [OR] 3.64; 95% Confidence Interval [CI] 2.33, 5.70), IL-6 (OR 1.41; 95% CI 1.06, 1.88), VCAM-1 (OR 15.82; 95% CI 1.71, 33.30) and homocysteine (OR 5.25; 95% CI 3.40, 8.13) were associated with prevalent proteinuria. Only hsCRP (OR 1.47; 95% CI 1.02, 2.11) was associated with incident proteinuria.
Conclusions
These findings suggest a role of inflammation and endothelial dysfunction as markers and contributors of the development of diabetic nephropathy in persons with type 1 diabetes mellitus.
Footnotes
Publisher's Disclaimer: Disclaimer. This is not the definitive version of record of this article. This manuscript has been accepted for publication in European Journal of Endocrinology, but the version presented here has not yet been copy edited, formatted or proofed. Consequently, the journal accepts no responsibility for any errors or omissions it may contain.
Declaration of Interest The authors declare is no conflict of interest that could be perceived as prejudicing the impartiality of the research reported.
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