Substantial evidence does not support the prevailing view that leptin, acting through a hypothalamic relay, decreases bone accrual by inhibiting bone formation. To clarify the mechanisms underlying regulation of bone architecture by leptin, we evaluated bone growth and turnover in wild-type (WT) mice, leptin receptor-deficient db/db mice, leptin-deficient ob/ob mice, and ob/ob mice treated with leptin. We also performed hypothalamic leptin gene therapy to determine the effect of elevated hypothalamic leptin levels on osteoblasts. Finally, to determine the effects of loss of peripheral leptin signaling on bone formation and energy metabolism, we used bone marrow (BM) from WT or db/db donor mice to reconstitute the hematopoietic and mesenchymal stem cell compartments in lethally irradiated WT recipient mice. Decreases in bone growth, osteoblast-lined bone perimeter and bone formation rate were observed in ob/ob mice and greatly increased in ob/ob mice following subcutaneous administration of leptin. Similarly, hypothalamic leptin gene therapy increased osteoblast-lined bone perimeter in ob/ob mice. In spite of normal osteoclast-lined bone perimeter, db/db mice exhibited a mild but generalized osteopetrotic-like (calcified cartilage encased by bone) skeletal phenotype and greatly reduced serum markers of bone turnover. Tracking studies and histology revealed quantitative replacement of BM cells following BM transplantation. WT mice engrafted with db/db BM did not differ in energy homeostasis from untreated WT mice or WT mice engrafted with WT BM. Bone formation in WT mice engrafted with WT BM did not differ from WT mice, whereas bone formation in WT mice engrafted with db/db cells did not differ from the low rates observed in untreated db/db mice. In summary, our results indicate that leptin, acting primarily through peripheral pathways, increases osteoblast number and activity.

BACKGROUND

In mammals, new neurons are added to the olfactory bulb (OB) throughout life. Most of these new neurons, granule and periglomerular cells originate from the subventricular zone (SVZ) lining the lateral ventricles and migrate via the rostral migratory stream toward the OB. Thousands of new neurons appear each day, but the function of this ongoing neurogenesis remains unclear.

RESULTS

In this study, we irradiated adult mice to impair constitutive OB neurogenesis, and explored the functional impacts of this irradiation on the sense of smell. We found that focal irradiation of the SVZ greatly decreased the rate of production of new OB neurons, leaving other brain areas intact. This effect persisted for up to seven months after exposure to 15 Gray. Despite this robust impairment, the thresholds for detecting pure odorant molecules and short-term olfactory memory were not affected by irradiation. Similarly, the ability to distinguish between odorant molecules and the odorant-guided social behavior of irradiated mice were not affected by the decrease in the number of new neurons. Only long-term olfactory memory was found to be sensitive to SVZ irradiation.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings suggest that the continuous production of adult-generated neurons is involved in consolidating or restituting long-lasting olfactory traces.

BACKGROUND

We have shown previously that treatment with pegylated leptin peptide receptor antagonist 2 (PEG-LPrA2) reduced the expression of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), vascular endothelial growth factor receptor type 2 (VEGFR2) and growth of 4T1-breast cancer (BC) in syngeneic mice. In this investigation, PEG-LPrA2 was used to evaluate whether the inhibition of leptin signaling has differential impact on the expression of pro-angiogenic and pro-proliferative molecules and growth of human estrogen receptor-positive (ER+) and estrogen receptor-negative (ER-) BC xenografts hosted by immunodeficient mice.

METHODS

To test the contribution of leptin signaling to BC growth and expression of leptin-targeted molecules, PEG-LPrA2 treatment was applied to severe immunodeficient mice hosting established ER+ (MCF-7 cells; ovariectomized/supplemented with estradiol) and ER- (MDA-MB231 cells) BC xenografts. To further assess leptin and PEG-LPrA2 effects on ER+ and ER- BC, the expression of VEGF and VEGFR2 (protein and mRNA) was investigated in cell cultures.

RESULTS

PEG-LPrA2 more effectively reduced the growth of ER+ (>40-fold) than ER- BC (twofold) and expression of pro-angiogenic (VEGF/VEGFR2, leptin/leptin receptor OB-R, and IL-1 receptor type I) and pro-proliferative molecules (proliferating cell nuclear antigen and cyclin D1) in ER+ than in ER- BC. Mouse tumor stroma in ER+ BC expressed high levels of VEGF and leptin that was induced by leptin signaling. Leptin upregulated the transcriptional expression of VEGF/VEGFR2 in MCF-7 and MDA-MB231 cells.

CONCLUSIONS

These results suggest that leptin signaling plays an important role in the growth of both ER+ and ER- BC that is associated with the leptin regulation of pro-angiogenic and pro-proliferative molecules. These data provide support for the potential use of leptin-signaling inhibition as a novel treatment for ER+ and ER- BC.

OBJECTIVE

To test the hypothesis that obesity resulting from deletion of the leptin gene or the leptin receptor gene results in increased knee osteoarthritis (OA), systemic inflammation, and altered subchondral bone morphology.

METHODS

Leptin-deficient (ob/ob) and leptin receptor-deficient (db/db) female mice compared with wild-type mice were studied, to document knee OA via histopathology. The levels of serum proinflammatory and antiinflammatory cytokines were measured using a multiplex bead immunoassay. Cortical and trabecular subchondral bone changes were documented by microfocal computed tomography, and body composition was quantified by dual x-ray absorptiometry.

RESULTS

Adiposity was increased by approximately 10-fold in ob/ob and db/db mice compared with controls, but it was not associated with an increased incidence of knee OA. Serum cytokine levels were unchanged in ob/ob and db/db mice relative to controls, except for the level of cytokine-induced neutrophil chemoattractant (keratinocyte chemoattractant; murine analog of interleukin-8), which was elevated. Leptin impairment was associated with reduced subchondral bone thickness and increased relative trabecular bone volume in the tibial epiphysis.

CONCLUSIONS

Extreme obesity due to impaired leptin signaling induced alterations in subchondral bone morphology without increasing the incidence of knee OA. Systemic inflammatory cytokine levels remained largely unchanged in ob/ob and db/db mice. These findings suggest that body fat, in and of itself, may not be a risk factor for joint degeneration, because adiposity in the absence of leptin signaling is insufficient to induce systemic inflammation and knee OA in female C57BL/6J mice. These results imply a pleiotropic role of leptin in the development of OA by regulating both the skeletal and immune systems.

Much data on the olfactory bulb (OB) indicates that structural characteristics of odorant molecules are encoded as ordered, spatially consolidated sets of active cells. New results with "genetic tracing" (Zou et al. [2001] Nature 414:173-179) suggest that spatial order is also present in projections from the OB to the olfactory cortex. For the piriform cortex (PC), results with this technique indicate that afferents conveying input derived from single olfactory receptors (ORs) are distributed to well-defined patches in the anterior PC (APC) but that these patches are much larger than in the OB. We have used c-fos induction to examine how input patterning for single ORs is translated into patterns of odor-evoked cellular activity in the PC. The laminar distribution of labeled cells and dual-immunostaining for gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)ergic markers indicated that activity was detected largely in pyramidal cells. In odor-stimulated rats, labeled cells were present throughout the posterior PC (PPC) but were concentrated in prominent rostrocaudal bands in APC. Analysis of responses to different odorants and concentrations revealed that locations and shapes of bands conveyed no apparent information regarding odor quality, rather, they appeared to correspond to subregions of the APC distinguished by cytoarchitecture and connectivity. Small-scale variations in labeling density were observed within APC bands and throughout the PPC that could reflect the presence of a complex topographical order, but discrete patches at consistent locations as observed by genetic tracing were absent. This finding suggests that as a result of afferent overlap and intracortical processing, odor-quality information is represented by spatially distributed sets of cells. A distributed organization may be optimal for discriminating biologically relevant odorants that activate large numbers of ORs.

OBJECTIVE

We undertook this analysis of KRAS mutation in four trials of adjuvant chemotherapy (ACT) versus observation (OBS) to clarify the prognostic/predictive roles of KRAS in non-small-cell lung cancer (NSCLC).

METHODS

KRAS mutation was determined in blinded fashion. Exploratory analyses were performed to characterize relationships between mutation status and subtype and survival outcomes using a multivariable Cox model.

RESULTS

Among 1,543 patients (763 OBS, 780 ACT), 300 had KRAS mutations (codon 12, n = 275; codon 13, n = 24; codon 14, n = 1). In OBS patients, there was no prognostic difference for overall survival for codon-12 (mutation v wild type [WT] hazard ratio [HR] = 1.04; 95% CI, 0.77 to 1.40) or codon-13 (HR = 1.01; 95% CI, 0.47 to 2.17) mutations. No significant benefit from ACT was observed for WT-KRAS (ACT v OBS HR = 0.89; 95% CI, 0.76 to 1.04; P = .15) or codon-12 mutations (HR = 0.95; 95% CI, 0.67 to 1.35; P = .77); with codon-13 mutations, ACT was deleterious (HR = 5.78; 95% CI, 2.06 to 16.2; P < .001; interaction P = .002). There was no prognostic effect for specific codon-12 amino acid substitution. The effect of ACT was variable among patients with codon-12 mutations: G12A or G12R (HR = 0.66; P = .48), G12C or G12V (HR = 0.94; P = .77) and G12D or G12S (HR = 1.39; P = .48; comparison of four HRs, including WT, interaction P = .76). OBS patients with KRAS-mutated tumors were more likely to develop second primary cancers (HR = 2.76, 95% CI, 1.34 to 5.70; P = .005) but not ACT patients (HR = 0.66; 95% CI, 0.25 to 1.75; P = .40; interaction, P = .02).

CONCLUSIONS

KRAS mutation status is not significantly prognostic. The potential interaction in patients with codon-13 mutations requires validation. At this time, KRAS status cannot be recommended to select patients with NSCLC for ACT.

Leptin (Ob protein) is a recently isolated hormone produced by adipocytes and is a powerful regulator of satiety centers in the brain. A defect in either leptin production or transmission of the leptin signal in animal models, i.e. ob/ob and db/db mice, respectively, results in a syndrome of obesity and diabetes which closely resembles that which occurs in humans. Leptin release is regulated in part by nutritional status and its expression in adipose tissue is up-regulated by insulin. Since hyperinsulinemia is a primary defect in ob/ob and db/db mice which manifests early in the disease, we postulated that leptin may also regulate insulin release as part of a "adipoinsular' feedback loop. We demonstrate the expression of leptin receptor mRNA in primary rat pancreatic islets and in the insulinoma cell line beta TC-3. Furthermore, we find binding of 125I-leptin to beta TC-3 cells which is significantly displaced by leptin. These findings suggest the possibility that the binding of leptin to its receptor in beta-cells may modulate insulin expression in a negative feedback loop, and thereby may have an anti-obesity effect.

Animal obesity models differ widely in type and extent of obesity. They are either based on environmental factors (eg. high fat diet induced obesity), spontaneous mutants (i.e. ob/ob mice), genetically engineered animals (eg. mice with melanocortin receptor subtype-4 gene disruption (knock-out)) or mechanical intervention (eg. chemical lesion of the ventromedial hypothalamus). This article reviews available rodent models to study obesity and attempts to highlight the greatest utility for each model.

Transforming growth factor beta (TGF-beta) is abundant in bone and has complex effects on osteolysis, with both positive and negative effects on osteoclast differentiation, suggesting that it acts via more than one mechanism. Osteoclastogenesis is determined primarily by osteoblast (OB) expression of the tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-related molecule receptor activator of NF-kappaB ligand (RANKL) and its decoy receptor osteoprotegerin (OPG), which are increased and decreased, respectively, by osteolytic factors. A RANKL-independent osteoclastogenic mechanism mediated by TNF-alpha has also been shown. Therefore, we investigated TGF-beta effects on osteoclast formation in culture systems in which osteoclastogenic stimulus is dependent on OBs and culture systems where it was provided by exogenously added RANKL or TNF-alpha. Both OPG and TGF-beta inhibited osteoclast formation in hemopoietic cell/OB cocultures, but the kinetics of their action differed. TGF-beta also inhibited osteoclastogenesis in cocultures of cells derived from OPG null (opg-/-) mice. TGF-beta strongly decreased RANKL messenger RNA (mRNA) expression in cultured osteoblasts, and addition of exogenous RANKL to TGFbeta-inhibited cocultures of opg-/- cells partially restored osteoclastogenesis. Combined, these data indicate that the inhibitory actions of TGF-beta were mediated mainly by decreased OB production of RANKL. In contrast, in the absence of OBs, TGF-beta greatly increased osteoclast formation in recombinant RANKL- or TNF-alpha-stimulated cultures of hemopoietic cells or RAW 264.7 macrophage-like cells to levels several-fold greater than attainable by maximal stimulation by RANKL or TNF-alpha. These data suggest that TGF-beta may increase osteoclast formation via action on osteoclast precursors. Therefore, although RANKL (or TNF-alpha) is essential for osteoclast formation, factors such as TGF-beta may powerfully modify these osteoclastogenic stimuli. Such actions may be critical to the control of physiological and pathophysiological osteolysis.

The proteasome forms the core of the protein quality control system in archaea and eukaryotes and also occurs in one bacterial lineage, the Actinobacteria. Access to its proteolytic compartment is controlled by AAA ATPases, whose N-terminal domains (N domains) are thought to mediate substrate recognition. The N domains of an archaeal proteasomal ATPase, Archaeoglobus fulgidus PAN, and of its actinobacterial homolog, Rhodococcus erythropolis ARC, form hexameric rings, whose subunits consist of an N-terminal coiled coil and a C-terminal OB domain. In ARC-N, the OB domains are duplicated and form separate rings. PAN-N and ARC-N can act as chaperones, preventing the aggregation of heterologous proteins in vitro, and this activity is preserved in various chimeras, even when these include coiled coils and OB domains from unrelated proteins. The structures suggest a molecular mechanism for substrate processing based on concerted radial motions of the coiled coils relative to the OB rings.

Leptin, the product of the human homologue of the ob gene, which is defective in the obese (ob/ob) mouse, may be a humoral regulator of human adiposity. Plasma leptin concentrations were measured by RIA in 19 normal weight [body mass index (BMI) = 24.5 +/- 0.6 kg/m2] and 19 overweight to obese (BMI = 34.7 +/- 1.2 kg/m2) nondiabetic postmenopausal women on sequential controlled weight-maintaining diets containing 31%, 23%, and 14% of energy as fat, each for 4-6 weeks. Thereafter, the subjects ate a very low fat diet (< 15%) ad libitum; plasma leptin and insulin concentrations, BMI, percent body fat (%BF), and resting energy expenditure were determined after 6 and 8 months. Absolute and adiposity-corrected plasma leptin levels were higher in overweight/obese women (37.7 +/- 3.5 ng/mL; 1.01 +/- 0.07 ng.mL-1.%BF-1) than in normal weight women (16.9 +/- 2.2 ng/mL; 0.57 +/- 0.06 ng.mL-1.%BF-1, both P < 0.005 vs. obese), but were not different between the 31%, 23%, and 14% fat diets when body weight was stable. Plasma leptin was highly correlated with BMI (r = 0.81, P < 0.0001), %BF (r = 0.80, P < 0.0001), and fasting plasma insulin (r = 0.61, P < 0.0001). After 8 months on the ad libitum low fat diet, the women had lost an average of 6.9 +/- 1.0% of body mass (-2.0 +/- 0.3 kg/m2, P < 0.0001). In 15 subjects who lost more than 7% of body mass (-12.3 +/- 1.0%), plasma leptin concentrations decreased (-9.6 +/- 1.9 ng/mL, P < 0.0005), and the decrease of plasma leptin per change of adiposity (delta leptin/delta %BF) was greater in overweight/obese women (3.6 +/- 0.5) than in normal weight women (0.9 +/- 0.4, P < 0.01 vs. obese). In 18 other subjects who lost less than 7% of body mass (-2.7 +/- 0.6%), plasma leptin was unchanged (+1.4 +/- 1.4 ng/mL). Overall, the change of plasma leptin was significantly correlated with change of BMI (r = 0.43, P < 0.02), the change of %BF (r = 0.49, P < 0.005), the change of resting energy expenditure (r = 0.40, P < 0.02), and with the change of plasma insulin independently of changes of body adiposity (r = 0.45, P < 0.01). We conclude that plasma leptin concentrations are: 1) not affected by dietary fat content per se; 2) highly correlated with BMI, %BF, and plasma insulin in both overweight/obese and normal weight women; 3) decreased in parallel with plasma insulin after sustained weight loss; and 4) decreased more in overweight/obese than in normal weight women.

Resistin was originally reported as an adipose tissue-specific hormone that provided a link between obesity and diabetes. Resistin protein level was elevated in obese mice and decreased by insulin-sensitizing thiazolidinediones. Immunoneutralization of resistin improved insulin sensitivity in diet-induced obese mice, while the administration of exogenous resistin induced insulin resistance. More recently, we have shown that ablation of the resistin gene in mice decreased fasting glucose through impairment of gluconeogenesis, while resistin treatment in these knockout mice increased hepatic glucose production. However, the link between resistin and glucose homeostasis has been questioned by studies demonstrating reduced, rather than increased, resistin mRNA expression in obese and diabetic mice. To better understand the regulation of resistin, we developed a sensitive and specific RIA resistin that could accurately measure serum resistin levels in several mouse models. We show that while resistin mRNA is indeed suppressed in obese mice, the circulating resistin level is significantly elevated and positively correlated with insulin, glucose, and lipids. Both resistin mRNA expression and protein levels in Lep(ob/ob) mice are suppressed by leptin treatment in parallel with reductions in glucose and insulin. In wild-type mice, serum resistin increases after nocturnal feeding, concordant with rising levels of insulin. Resistin mRNA and protein levels decline in parallel with glucose and insulin during fasting and are restored after refeeding. We performed clamp studies to determine whether resistin is causally related to insulin and glucose. Adipose resistin expression and serum resistin increased in response to hyperinsulinemia and further in response to hyperglycemia. Taken together, these findings suggest that the nutritional regulation of resistin and changes in resistin gene expression and circulating levels in obesity are mediated, at least in part, through insulin and glucose.

Two cytotoxic proteins, bovine pancreatic ribonuclease A (RNase A), and a restriction endonuclease from Haemophilus parainfluenzae (HpaI), were produced using a novel semisynthetic approach that utilizes a protein splicing element, an intein, to generate a reactive thioester at the C-terminus of a recombinant protein. Nucleophilic attack on this thioester by the N-terminal cysteine of a synthetic peptide ultimately leads to the ligation of the two reactants through a native peptide bond. This strategy was used to produce RNase A and HpaI by isolating inactive truncated forms of these proteins, the first 109 and 223 amino acids of RNase A and HpaI, respectively, as fusion proteins consisting of the target protein, an intein, and a chitin binding domain. Thiol-induced cleavage of the precursor led to the liberation of the target protein with a C-terminal thioester-tag. Addition of synthetic peptides representing the amino acids missing from the truncated forms led to the generation of full-length products that displayed catalytic activity indicative of the wild-type enzymes. The turnover numbers and Km for ligated and renatured RNase A were 8.2 s(-1) and 1.5 mM, in good agreement with reported values of 8.3 s(-1) and 1.2 mM (Hodges & Merrifield, 1975). Ligated HpaI had a specific activity of 0.5-1.5 x 10(6) U/mg, which compared favorably with the expected value of 1-2 x 10(6) U/mg (J. Benner, unpubl. obs.). Besides assisting in the production of cytotoxic proteins, this technique could allow the easy insertion of unnatural amino acids into a protein sequence.

Adipsin is a serine protease that is secreted by adipocytes into the bloodstream; it is deficient in several animal models of obesity, representing a striking example of defective gene expression in this disorder. Recombinant mouse adipsin was purified and its biochemical and enzymatic properties were studied in order to elucidate the function of this protein. Activated adipsin has little or no proteolytic activity toward most substrates but has the same activity as human complement factor D, cleaving complement factor B when it is complexed with activated complement component C3. Like authentic factor D, adipsin can activate the alternative pathway of complement, resulting in red blood cell lysis. Decreased (58 to 80 percent) complement factor D activity, relative to lean controls, was observed as a common feature of several experimental models of obesity, including the ob/ob, db/db, and monosodium glutamate (MSG)-injected mouse and the fa/fa rat. These results suggest that adipsin and the alternative pathway of complement may play an unexpected but important role in the regulation of systemic energy balance in vivo.

Osteoclasts (Oc) derive from hematopoietic precursors present in the circulation and bone marrow, and they differentiate into multinucleated bone-resorbing cells in response to the dual essential signals receptor activator of NF-kappaB ligand (RANKL) and macrophage-colony stimulating factor (M-CSF) primarily provided by bone marrow stromal cells (BMSC) and osteoblasts (Ob). However, little is known about signals that direct Oc precursors from the circulation into bone or control their migration within the marrow. Stromal cell-derived factor-1 (SDF-1 or CXCL12) is a chemokine highly expressed by bone endothelium, BMSC, and immature Ob that is essential for the normal homing, early development, and survival of various hematopoietic progenitor cells. We investigated whether SDF-1 and its unique chemokine receptor CXCR4 were involved in regulating human Oc precursor chemotaxis, development, function, or survival. CXCR4 was highly expressed by freshly isolated human monocyte (MN) populations, in vitro generated Oc and Oc-like cells, and mature Oc isolated from human femoral bones. SDF-1 markedly stimulated the chemotactic recruitment of circulating human MN capable of generating bone-resorptive Oc, leading to a 4-fold increase in Oc formation and greater bone pit resorption after their M-CSF + RANKL induced differentiation compared to spontaneously migrating cells. SDF-1 also directly promoted early (but not later) stages of Oc development via stimulating precursor cell numbers, multinucleated cell fusion, increased cell size, and tartrate-resistant acid phosphatase (TRAP) activity in a similar, but non-additive, fashion to M-CSF + RANKL. While SDF-1 did not cause full development of bone-resorbing Oc or stimulate the resorptive function of mature Oc directly, it also did not interfere with any actions promoted by M-CSF + RANKL. In mature human Oc, SDF-1 proved equally as effective as M-CSF + RANKL for preventing Oc apoptosis induced by cytokine withdrawal. In both cases, Oc survival was accompanied by analogous rises in the mRNA ratios for anti-apoptotic Bcl-xL and Bfl-1 relative to pro-apoptotic Bax, and by marked protein suppression of the critical pro-apoptotic signal Bim. These findings demonstrate for the first time that SDF-1 chemoattracts circulating human Oc precursors capable of developing into bone-resorptive Oc, and that it can stimulate MN cell fusion and TRAP activity, mimic M-CSF + RANKL in early osteoclastogenic effects, substitute for M-CSF + RANKL in maintaining the survival of mature human Oc, and suppress Oc expression of Bim protein. Thus, high levels of SDF-1 produced by bone endothelium, BMSC, and Ob may selectively target circulating Oc precursors into bone and stimulate their marrow migration into suitable perivascular stromal sites for their early development, RANKL differentiation, and survival. Consequently, SDF-1 may be a key factor linking bone vascular cells, BMSC, Ob, and Oc in the normal homeostatic regulation of bone development and remodeling.

Excess carbohydrate intake leads to fat accumulation and insulin resistance. Glucose and insulin coordinately regulate de novo lipogenesis from glucose in the liver, and insulin activates several transcription factors including SREBP1c and LXR, while those activated by glucose remain unknown. Recently, a carbohydrate response element binding protein (ChREBP), which binds to the carbohydrate response element (ChoRE) in the promoter of rat liver type pyruvate kinase (LPK), has been identified. The target genes of ChREBP are involved in glycolysis, lipogenesis, and gluconeogenesis. Although the regulation of ChREBP remains unknown in detail, the transactivity of ChREBP is partly regulated by a phosphorylation/dephosphorylation mechanism. During fasting, protein kinase A and AMP-activated protein kinase phosphorylate ChREBP and inactivate its transactivity. During feeding, xylulose-5-phosphate in the hexose monophosphate pathway activates protein phosphatase 2A, which dephosphorylates ChREBP and activates its transactivity. ChREBP controls 50% of hepatic lipogenesis by regulating glycolytic and lipogenic gene expression. In ChREBP (-/-) mice, liver triglyceride content is decreased and liver glycogen content is increased compared to wild-type mice. These results indicate that ChREBP can regulate metabolic gene expression to convert excess carbohydrate into triglyceride rather than glycogen. Furthermore, complete inhibition of ChREBP in ob/ob mice reduces the effects of the metabolic syndrome such as obesity, fatty liver, and glucose intolerance. Thus, further clarification of the physiological role of ChREBP may be useful in developing treatments for the metabolic syndrome.

Recent studies suggest that leptin, the ob gene product absent in ob/ob mice, is a negative regulator of adiposity. We developed an RIA to measure human leptin in plasma or serum. The minimum detectable concentration by the assay is 0.5 microg/L leptin and the limit of linearity is 100 microg/L. Recovery of leptin added to serum was 99-104% over by the linear range of the assay. The RIA agreed reasonably well with rough quantification by Western blot (RIA = 0.90 blot + 3.7 microg/L, Sy/x = 10.9 microg/L). CVs within- and between-run ranged from 3.4% to 8.3% and from 3.6% to 6.2%, respectively. Variation in plasma leptin concentrations in specimens collected on consecutive mornings was large (CVs of 10.9% and 22.5%). After an overnight fast, leptin concentrations were similar to those 1-2 h after 1-2 meals. Plasma leptin concentrations in specimens from 83 lean and obese adults correlated directly with body mass index (BMI; kg/m2): r = 0.72, P <0.001. Correlations were significantly improved by separating results by gender (men r = 0.84, women r = 0.87; p <0.001). The increase in leptin concentrations with increasing BMI was greater in women than in men (slope 2.53 vs 0.97 microg/L per unit BMI, respectively). Leptin concentrations determined in lean subjects (BMI between 18 and 25) were higher in women (7.36 +/- 3.73 microg/L) than in men (3.84 +/- 1.79 microg/L) (P <0.001). Plasma leptin varied little with age and no significant difference was observed between whites and blacks. We conclude that: (a) plasma leptin concentrations are accurately and precisely measured by this new RIA; (b) leptin concentrations vary little due to short-term fasting, age, or race; but (c) plasma leptin concentrations are gender specific.

The translation initiation factor eIF1A is necessary for directing the 43S preinitiation complex from the 5' end of the mRNA to the initiation codon in a process termed scanning. We have determined the solution structure of human eIF1A, which reveals an oligonucleotide-binding (OB) fold and an additional domain. NMR titration experiments showed that eIF1A binds single-stranded RNA oligonucleotides in a site-specific, but non-sequence-specific manner, hinting at an mRNA interaction rather than specific rRNA or tRNA binding. The RNA binding surface extends over a large area covering the canonical OB fold binding site as well as a groove leading to the second domain. Site-directed mutations at multiple positions along the RNA-binding surface were defective in the ability to properly assemble preinitiation complexes at the AUG codon in vitro.

Forkhead transcription factor Foxa2 activates genes involved in hepatic lipid metabolism and is regulated by insulin. Activation of Foxa2 in the liver leads to increased oxidation and secretion of fatty acids in the form of triacylglycerols (TAGs), a process impaired in type 2 diabetes. Here, we demonstrate that Foxa2 is coactivated by PPARgamma coactivator beta (Pgc-1beta). Adenoviral expression of Foxa2 and Pgc-1beta in livers of ob/ob mice results in decreased hepatic TAG content and increased plasma TAG concentrations. In addition, the concerted action of Foxa2/Pgc-1beta activates genes in mitochondrial beta oxidation and enhances fatty acid metabolism. Furthermore, Foxa2/Pgc-1beta induce the expression of microsomal transfer protein, thereby increasing apoB-containing VLDL secretion. This process is inhibited by insulin through a Foxa2-dependent mechanism. These data demonstrate that Foxa2/Pgc-1beta regulate hepatic lipid homeostasis by affecting the clearance rate of fatty acids through oxidation and/or secretion of lipids in response to insulin.

The transcription factor carbohydrate response element-binding protein (ChREBP) mediates insulin-independent, glucose-stimulated gene expression of multiple liver enzymes responsible for converting excess carbohydrate to fatty acids for long-term storage. To investigate ChREBP's role in the development of obesity and obesity-associated metabolic dysregulation, ChREBP-deficient mice were intercrossed with ob/ob mice. As a result of deficient leptin expression, ob/ob mice overeat, become obese and resistant to insulin, and display marked elevations in hepatic lipogenesis, gluconeogenesis, and plasma glucose and triglycerides. mRNA expression of all hepatic lipogenic enzymes was significantly lower in ob/ob-ChREBP-/- than in ob/ob mice, resulting in decreased hepatic fatty acid synthesis and normalization of plasma free fatty acid and triglyceride levels. Overall weight gain in addition to adiposity was reduced in the doubly deficient mice. The former was largely attributable to decreased food intake and may result from decreased hypothalamic expression of the appetite-stimulating neuropeptide agouti-related protein. mRNA expression and activity of gluconeogenic enzymes also was lower in the doubly deficient mice, contributing to significantly lower blood glucose levels. The results of this study suggest that inactivation of ChREBP expression not only reduces fat synthesis and obesity in ob/ob mice but also results in improved glucose tolerance and appetite control.

Estrogen (17beta-estradiol, E2) plays pivotal roles in the function and maintenance of the skeleton, including the bone-forming osteoblasts (OBs). The functions of E2 are largely mediated through two distinct estrogen receptor isoforms, ERalpha and ERbeta, both of which are expressed in OBs. The level of each isoform dominates at early or late stages of OB differentiation. To date, only a limited comparison between the transcriptional targets of ERalpha and ERbeta on endogenous gene expression has been reported. We have developed new stable cell lines, which contain doxycycline (Dox)-inducible ERalpha and ERbeta, in the U2OS human osteosarcoma to determine the global transcriptional profile of ERalpha- and ERbeta-regulation of endogenous gene expression. The U2OS-ERalpha and U2OS-ERbeta cell lines were treated with Dox and either vehicle control or E2 for 24 h. Gene expression analysis was performed using a microarray containing approximately 6,800 full-length genes. We detected 63 genes that were regulated solely by ERalpha and 59 genes that were only regulated solely by ERbeta. Of the ERalpha-regulated genes, 81% were upregulated and 19% were inhibited. Similarly 76% of the ERbeta-regulated genes were upregulated whereas 24% were inhibited by E2. Surprisingly, only 17 genes were induced by both ERalpha and ERbeta. Real-time PCR was employed to confirm the expression of a selected number of genes. The regulation of a number of known E2-responsive genes in human OBs, as well as many interesting novel genes, is shown. The distinct patterns of E2-dependent gene regulation in the U2OS cells by ERalpha and ERbeta shown here suggest that during OB differentiation, when either isoform dominates, a unique pattern of gene responses will occur, partially due to the differentiation state and the ER isoform present.

OBJECTIVE

Carbohydrate-responsive element-binding protein (ChREBP) is a key transcription factor that mediates the effects of glucose on glycolytic and lipogenic genes in the liver. We have previously reported that liver-specific inhibition of ChREBP prevents hepatic steatosis in ob/ob mice by specifically decreasing lipogenic rates in vivo. To better understand the regulation of ChREBP activity in the liver, we investigated the implication of O-linked β-N-acetylglucosamine (O-GlcNAc or O-GlcNAcylation), an important glucose-dependent posttranslational modification playing multiple roles in transcription, protein stabilization, nuclear localization, and signal transduction.

METHODS

O-GlcNAcylation is highly dynamic through the action of two enzymes: the O-GlcNAc transferase (OGT), which transfers the monosaccharide to serine/threonine residues on a target protein, and the O-GlcNAcase (OGA), which hydrolyses the sugar. To modulate ChREBP(OG) in vitro and in vivo, the OGT and OGA enzymes were overexpressed or inhibited via adenoviral approaches in mouse hepatocytes and in the liver of C57BL/6J or obese db/db mice.

RESULTS

Our study shows that ChREBP interacts with OGT and is subjected to O-GlcNAcylation in liver cells. O-GlcNAcylation stabilizes the ChREBP protein and increases its transcriptional activity toward its target glycolytic (L-PK) and lipogenic genes (ACC, FAS, and SCD1) when combined with an active glucose flux in vivo. Indeed, OGT overexpression significantly increased ChREBP(OG) in liver nuclear extracts from fed C57BL/6J mice, leading in turn to enhanced lipogenic gene expression and to excessive hepatic triglyceride deposition. In the livers of hyperglycemic obese db/db mice, ChREBP(OG) levels were elevated compared with controls. Interestingly, reducing ChREBP(OG) levels via OGA overexpression decreased lipogenic protein content (ACC, FAS), prevented hepatic steatosis, and improved the lipidic profile of OGA-treated db/db mice.

CONCLUSIONS

Taken together, our results reveal that O-GlcNAcylation represents an important novel regulation of ChREBP activity in the liver under both physiological and pathophysiological conditions.

Leptin, a 16-kDa protein secreted from white adipocytes, has been implicated in the regulation of food intake, energy expenditure, and whole-body energy balance in rodents and humans. The gene encoding leptin was identified by positional cloning and is the mutation leading to the profound obese phenotype of the ob/ob mouse. Exogenous administration of leptin to ob/ob mice leads to a significant improvement in reproductive and endocrine status as well as reduced food intake and weight loss. The expression and secretion of leptin is highly correlated with body fat mass and adipocyte size. Cortisol and insulin are potent stimulators of leptin expression, and expression is attenuated by beta-adrenergic agonists, cAMP, and thiazolidinediones. The role of other hormones and growth factors in the regulation of leptin expression and secretion is emerging. Leptin circulates specifically bound to proteins in serum, which may regulate its half-life and biological activity. Isoforms of the leptin receptor, members of the interleukin-6 cytokine family of receptors, are found in multiple tissues, including the brain. Many of leptin's effects on food intake and energy expenditure are thought to be mediated centrally via neurotransmitters such as neuropeptide Y. Multiple peripheral effects of leptin have also been recently described, including the regulation of insulin secretion by pancreatic beta cells and regulation of insulin action and energy metabolism in adipocytes and skeletal muscle. Leptin is thought to be a metabolic signal that regulates nutritional status effects on reproductive function. Leptin also plays a major role in hematopoeisis and in the anorexia accompanying an acute cytokine challenge. The profound effects of leptin on regulating body energy balance make it a prime candidate for drug therapies for humans and animals.

Differentiation of hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) after birth is largely restricted to the bone marrow cavity, where HSCs are associated closely with osteoblasts (OBs). How OBs localize HSCs to the endosteal niche remains unclear. To explore adhesive interactions between HSCs and OBs, a cell blot analysis was used that revealed 2 major bands that corresponded to monomers and multimers of annexin II (Anxa2). Immunohistochemistry revealed that OBs and marrow endothelial cells express Anxa2 at high levels. Function-blocking studies confirmed that Anxa2 mediates HSC adhesion mainly via the N-terminal portion of the Anxa2 peptide. Adhesion of HSCs to OBs derived from Anxa2-deficient animals (Anxa2(-/-)) was significantly impaired compared with OBs obtained from wild-type animals (Anxa2(+/+)). Moreover, fewer HSCs were found in the marrow of Anxa2(-/-) versus Anxa2(+/+) animals. Short-term lodging, engraftment, and survival of irradiated mice with whole marrow cells were substantially inhibited by N-terminal peptide fragments of Anxa2 or anti-Anxa2 antibodies. Similar findings were noted in long-term competitive repopulation studies. Collectively, these findings reveal that Anxa2 regulates HSC homing and binding to the bone marrow microenvironment and suggest that Anxa2 is crucial for determining the bone marrow niche of HSCs.