It is commonly accepted that mitochondria undergo major changes early during the apoptotic process and that these alterations are critical for the death/life decision. Here we report that Jurkat T cell leukemia cells exhibit a perturbed incorporation of potential-sensitive fluorochromes. After 6 h of CD95/Fas/APO-1 crosslinking, a significant fraction of still normal-sized Jurkat cells exhibit a decreased incorporation of three different cationic lipophilic dyes commonly used for the quantitation of the mitochondrial transmembrane potential (deltapsi(m)): DiOC6(3), chloromethyl-X-rosamine, and tetramethylrhodaminemethylester. In contrast, upon induction of apoptosis, cells tend to exhibit an increase in the fluorescence obtained with rhodamine 123. The increased rhodamine 123 fluorescence into cells undergoing apoptosis is not affected by labeling in the presence of the protonophore m-chlorophenylhydrazone and thus cannot be attributed to a change in the deltapsi(m). Six hours after CD95 ligation no changes are found among normal-sized cells in the incorporation of mitotracker green and nonylacridine orange, which both measure mitochondrial mass. However, a fraction of cells exhibit an increased staining with the Apo2.7 antibody which detects a mitochondrial antigen generated during apoptosis. These findings underline the importance of using adequate fluorochromes for the quantitation of mitochondrial changes occurring during early apoptosis. Moreover, they cast doubts on those studies that, using rhodamine 123, hypothesized that apoptosis would be associated with a stable or increased deltapsi(m).

CD4(+) CD25(+) regulatory T cells prevent organ-specific autoimmune diseases in various animal models. We analysed human lymphoid tissues to identify similar CD25(+) regulatory T cells. Adult peripheral blood contained two populations of CD4(+) T cells that expressed CD25 at different densities. The larger population (approximately 40%) expressed intermediate levels of CD25 (CD25(+)) and displayed a memory T-cell phenotype (CD45RA-/RO(+), CD45RB(low), CD95(+), CD62L(low), CD38(low)). The smaller population of cells (approximately 2%) expressed very high levels of CD25 (CD25(++)). In addition to the activation/memory T-cell antigens mentioned above they also expressed intracellular CD152 (CTLA-4) as well as enhanced levels of cell-surface CD122, similar to the murine CD4(+) CD25(+) regulatory counterpart. To exclude that the CD25(++) cells had not been recently primed by external antigen we analysed cord blood and thymus. CD25(++), CD152(+) and CD122(++) cells were present in paediatric thymus (10% of CD4(+) CD8(-) thymocytes) expressing signs of recent selection (CD69+) and in cord blood (5% of CD4(+) cells) where they showed a naive phenotype. In addition, cord blood contained a small population of CD25(+) cells (approximately 2% of CD4 T cells) that were CD152(-) and CD122(low) and displayed signs of activation. Together with published data that CD25(+) CD25(++) cells from the thymus and peripheral blood are regulatory, our results suggest that regulatory CD25(+) T cells leave the thymus in a naïve state and become activated in the periphery.

Following caspase-8 mediated cleavage, a carboxyl-terminal fragment of the BH3 domain-only Bcl-2 family member Bid transmits the apoptotic signal from death receptors to mitochondria. In a screen for possible regulators of Bid, we defined Bfl-1/A1 as a potent Bid interacting protein. Bfl-1 is an anti-apoptotic Bcl-2 family member, whose preferential expression in hematopoietic cells and endothelium is controlled by inflammatory stimuli. Its mechanism of action is unknown. We find that Bfl-1 associates with both full-length Bid and truncated (t)Bid, via the Bid BH3 domain. Cellular expression of Bfl-1 confers protection against CD95- and Trail receptor-induced cytochrome c release. In vitro assays, using purified mitochondria and recombinant proteins, demonstrate that Bfl-1 binds full-length Bid, but does not interfere with its processing by caspase-8, or with its mitochondrial association. Confocal microscopy supports that Bfl-1, which at least in part constitutively localizes to mitochondria, does not impede tBid translocation. However, Bfl-1 remains tightly and selectively bound to tBid and blocks collaboration between tBid and Bax or Bak in the plane of the mitochondrial membrane, thereby preventing mitochondrial apoptotic activation. Lack of demonstrable interaction between Bfl-1 and Bak or Bax in the mitochondrial membrane suggests that Bfl-1 generally prevents the formation of a pro-apoptotic complex by sequestering BH3 domain-only proteins.

Myeloid cell leukemia-1 (Mcl-1) is an antiapoptotic member of the Bcl-2 protein family. It interacts with proapoptotic Bcl-2 family members, thereby inhibiting mitochondrial activation and induction of apoptosis. Mcl-1 is essential for embryonal development and the maintenance of B cells, T cells, and hematopoietic stem cells. We have recently shown that induction of Mcl-1 by growth factors rescues primary human hepatocytes from CD95-mediated apoptosis. This prompted us to further analyze the relevance of Mcl-1 for hepatocellular homeostasis. Therefore, we generated a hepatocyte-specific Mcl-1 knockout mouse (Mcl-1(flox/flox)-AlbCre). Deletion of Mcl-1 in hepatocytes results in liver cell damage caused by spontaneous induction of apoptosis. Livers of Mcl-1(flox/flox)-AlbCre mice are smaller compared to control littermates, due to higher apoptosis rates. As a compensatory mechanism, proliferation of hepatocytes is enhanced in the absence of Mcl-1. Importantly, hepatic pericellular fibrosis occurs in Mcl-1 negative livers in response to chronic liver damage. Furthermore, Mcl-1(flox/flox)-AlbCre mice are more susceptible to hepatocellular damage induced by agonistic anti-CD95 antibodies or concanavalin A.

CONCLUSIONS

The present study provides in vivo evidence that Mcl-1 is a crucial antiapoptotic factor for the liver, contributing to hepatocellular homeostasis and protecting hepatocytes from apoptosis induction.

The U2AF-homology motif (UHM) mediates protein-protein interactions between factors involved in constitutive RNA splicing. Here we report that the splicing factor SPF45 regulates alternative splicing of the apoptosis regulatory gene FAS (also called CD95). The SPF45 UHM is necessary for this activity and binds UHM-ligand motifs (ULMs) present in the 3' splice site-recognizing factors U2AF65, SF1 and SF3b155. We describe a 2.1-A crystal structure of SPF45-UHM in complex with a ULM peptide from SF3b155. Features distinct from those of previously described UHM-ULM structures allowed the design of mutations in the SPF45 UHM that selectively impair binding to individual ULMs. Splicing assays using the ULM-selective SPF45 variants demonstrate that individual UHM-ULM interactions are required for FAS splicing regulation by SPF45 in vivo. Our data suggest that networks of UHM-ULM interactions are involved in regulating alternative splicing.

The aberrant activity of the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K) pathway has been reported to correlate with adverse clinical outcome in human glioblastoma in vivo. However, the question of how this survival network can be successfully targeted to restore the sensitivity of glioblastoma to apoptosis induction has not yet been answered. Here, we report that inhibition of PI3K by LY294002 broadly sensitizes wild-type and mutant PTEN glioblastoma cells to both death receptor- and chemotherapy-induced apoptosis, whereas mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) inhibition is not sufficient to restore apoptosis sensitivity. LY294002 significantly enhances apoptosis triggered by tumor necrosis factor-related apoptosis-inducing ligand (TRAIL), agonistic anti-CD95 antibodies, or several anticancer drugs (i.e., doxorubicin, etoposide, and vincristine) in a highly synergistic manner. In addition, LY294002 cooperates with TRAIL or doxorubicin to suppress colony formation, thus also showing a strong effect on long-term survival. Similarly, genetic knockdown of PI3K subunits p110alpha and/or p110beta by RNA interference (RNAi) primes glioblastoma cells for TRAIL- or doxorubicin-mediated apoptosis. In contrast to PI3K inhibition, pharmacologic or genetic blockade of mTOR by RAD001 (everolimus), rapamycin, or RNAi fails to enhance TRAIL- or doxorubicin-induced apoptosis. Analysis of apoptosis pathways reveals that PI3K inhibition acts in concert with TRAIL or doxorubicin to trigger mitochondrial membrane permeabilization, caspase activation, and caspase-dependent apoptosis, which are abolished by the caspase inhibitor N-benzyloxycarbonyl-Val-Ala-Asp-fluoromethylketone. Most importantly, PI3K inhibition by LY294002 sensitizes primary cultured glioblastoma cells obtained from surgical specimens to TRAIL- or chemotherapy-induced cell death. By showing that PI3K inhibition broadly primes glioblastoma cells for apoptosis, our findings provide the rationale for using PI3K inhibitors in combination regimens to enhance TRAIL- or chemotherapy-induced apoptosis in glioblastoma.

In the majority of aggressive tumorigenic prostate cancer cells, the transcription factor Egr1 is overexpressed. We provide new insights of Egr1 involvement in proliferation and survival of TRAMP C2 prostate cancer cells by the identification of several new target genes controlling growth, cell cycle progression, and apoptosis such as cyclin D2, P19ink4d, and Fas. Egr1 regulation of these genes, identified by Affymetrix microarray, was confirmed by real-time PCR, immunoblot, and chromatin immunoprecipitation assays. Furthermore we also showed that Egr1 is responsible for cyclin D2 overexpression in tumorigenic DU145 human prostate cells. The regulation of these genes by Egr1 was demonstrated using Egr1 antisense oligonucleotides that further implicated Egr1 in resistance to apoptotic signals. One mechanism was illustrated by the ability of Egr1 to inhibit CD95 (Fas/Apo) expression, leading to insensitivity to FasL. The results provide a mechanistic basis for the oncogenic role of Egr1 in TRAMP C2 prostate cancer cells.

Apoptosis is the cell's intrinsic program to death, which plays an important role in physiologic growth control and homeostasis. Apoptosis can be triggered by death receptors (DRs), without any adverse effects. DRs are the members of tumor necrosis factor (TNF) receptor superfamily, known to be involved in apoptosis signaling, independent of p53 tumor-supressor gene. Selective triggering of DR-mediated apoptosis in cancer cells is a novel approach in cancer therapy. So far, the best characterized DRs are CD95 (Fas/Apo1), TNF-related apoptosis-inducing ligand receptor (TRAILR) and tumor necrosis factor receptor (TNFR). Among these, TRAILR is emerging as most promising agent for cancer therapy, because it induces apoptosis in a variety of tumor and transformed cells without any toxicity to normal cells. TRAIL treatment in combination with chemotherapy or radiotherapy enhances TRAIL sensitivity or reverses TRAIL resistance by regulating downstream effectors. This review covers the current knowledge about the DRs, summarizes main signaling in DRs and also summarizes the preclinical approaches of these DRs in cancer therapy.

Heterozygous mutations in the CD95 (APO-1/Fas) receptor occur in most individuals with autoimmune lymphoproliferative syndrome (ALPS) and dominantly interfere with apoptosis by an unknown mechanism. We show that local or global alterations in the structure of the cytoplasmic death domain from nine independent ALPS CD95 death-domain mutations result in a failure to bind the FADD/MORT1 signaling protein. Despite heterozygosity for the abnormal allele, lymphocytes from ALPS patients showed markedly decreased FADD association and a loss of caspase recruitment and activation after CD95 crosslinking. These data suggest that intracytoplasmic CD95 mutations in ALPS impair apoptosis chiefly by disrupting death-domain interactions with the signaling protein FADD/MORT1.

Cytotoxic T cells use Fas (CD95), a member of the tumor necrosis factor (TNF) receptor superfamily, to eliminate virus-infected cells by activation of the apoptotic pathway for cell death. The adenovirus E3 region encodes several proteins that modify immune defenses, including TNF-dependent cell death, which may allow this virus to establish a persistent infection. Here we show that, as an early event during infection, the adenovirus E3-10.4K/14.5K complex selectively induces loss of Fas surface expression and blocks Fas-induced apoptosis of virus-infected cells. Loss of surface Fas occurs within the first 4 h postinfection and is not due to decreased production of Fas protein. The decrease in surface Fas is distinct from the 10.4K/14.5K-mediated loss of the epidermal growth factor receptor on the same cells, because intracellular stores of Fas are not affected. Further, 10.4K/14.5K, which was previously shown to protect against TNF cytolysis, does not induce a loss of TNF receptor, indicating that this complex mediates more than one function to block host defense mechanisms. These results suggest yet another mechanism by which adenovirus modulates host cytotoxic responses that may contribute to persistent infection by human adenoviruses.

Activation of the cell-surface antigen CD95 induces apoptosis of CD95-bearing tumor cells. In this study, we investigated the antitumor effect of locally produced CD95 ligand (CD95L) on CD95-negative tumor cells in vivo. Introduction of CD95L cDNA into murine tumor cells did not affect growth in vitro but caused rejection in vivo. Neutrophils were primarily responsible for this rejection. A CD8 T cell-mediated protective immunity against subsequent challenge with parental tumor cells was also elicited. These results provide evidence for the potential utility of CD95L in tumor eradication and also reveal a proinflammatory function of CD95L.

Most CD4(+)CD25(hi)FOXP3(+) regulatory T cells (T(regs)) from adult peripheral blood express high levels of CD45RO and CD95 and are prone to CD95L-mediated apoptosis in contrast to conventional T cells (T(convs)). However, a T(reg) subpopulation remained consistently apoptosis resistant. Gene microarray and 6-color flow cytometry analysis including FOXP3 revealed an increase in naive T-cell markers on the CD95L-resistant T(regs) compared with most T(regs). In contrast to T(regs) found in adult humans, most CD4(+)CD25(+)FOXP3(+) T cells found in cord blood are naive and exhibit low CD95 expression. Furthermore, most of these newborn T(regs) are not sensitive toward CD95L similar to naive T(regs) from adult individuals. After short stimulation with anti-CD3/CD28 monoclonal antibodies (mAbs), cord blood T(regs) strongly up-regulated CD95 and were sensitized toward CD95L. This functional change was paralleled by a rapid up-regulation of memory T-cell markers on cord blood T(regs) that are frequently found on adult memory T(regs). In summary, we show a clear functional difference between naive and memory T(regs) that could result in different survival rates of those 2 cell populations in vivo. This new observation could be crucial for the planning of therapeutic application of T(regs).

Interferon (IFN)-gamma increases the sensitivity of tumor cell lines, many of which are p53 mutants, to tumor necrosis factor-alpha-mediated and anti-Fas antibody-mediated cell death. To better understand the mechanism of IFN-gamma action in modulating the cell death response independently of p53 function, we analyzed the death of the human colon adenocarcinoma cell line, HT-29, following treatment with IFN-gamma and various cytotoxic agents. Here we show that IFN-gamma modulates cell death by sensitizing the cells to killing by numerous pro-apoptotic stimuli but not pro-necrotic stimuli. Furthermore, we show that select genes from several important apoptosis-related gene families are induced by IFN-gamma, including the apoptosis-signaling receptors CD95 (Fas/APO-1) and TNFR 1 and interleukin-1beta-converting enzyme (Ice) family members Ice, CPP32 (Yama, apopain), ICErel-II (TX, Ich-2), Mch-3 (ICE-LAP3, CMH-1), Mch-4, and Mch-5 (MACH, FLICE). Of the bcl-2 family members, IFN-gamma directly induced bak but notably not bax, which is activated by p53. The IFN-responsive transcriptional activator interferon regulatory factor-1 was also strongly induced and translocated into the nucleus following IFN-gamma treatment. We propose that IFN-gamma modulates a p53-independent apoptotic pathway by both directly and indirectly inducing select apoptosis-related genes.

Apoptosis is a fundamental biologic process by which metazoan cells orchestrate their own self-demise. Genetic analyses of the nematode C elegans identified three core components of the suicide apparatus which include CED-3, CED-4, and CED-9. An analogous set of core constituents exists in mammalian cells and includes caspase-9, Apaf-1, and bcl-2/xL, respectively. CED-3 and CED-4, along with their mammalian counterparts, function to kill cells, whereas CED-9 and its mammalian equivalents protect cells from death. These central components biochemically intermingle in a ternary complex recently dubbed the "apoptosome." The C elegans protein EGL-1 and its mammalian counterparts, pro-apoptotic members of the bcl-2 family, induce cell death by disrupting apoptosome interactions. Thus, EGL-1 may represent a primordial signal integrator for the apoptosome. Various biochemical processes including oligomerization, adenosine triphosphate ATP/dATP binding, and cytochrome c interaction play a role in regulating the ternary death complex. Recent studies suggest that cell death receptors, such as CD95, may amplify their suicide signal by activating the apoptosome. These mutual associations by core components of the suicide apparatus provide a molecular framework in which diverse death signals likely interface. Understanding the apoptosome and its cellular connections will facilitate the design of novel therapeutic strategies for cancer and other disease states in which apoptosis plays a pivotal role.

CD150 (SLAM/IPO-3) is a cell surface receptor that, like the B cell receptor, CD40, and CD95, can transmit positive or negative signals. CD150 can associate with the SH2-containing inositol phosphatase (SHIP), the SH2-containing protein tyrosine phosphatase (SHP-2), and the adaptor protein SH2 domain protein 1A (SH2D1A/DSHP/SAP, also called Duncan's disease SH2-protein (DSHP) or SLAM-associated protein (SAP)). Mutations in SH2D1A are found in X-linked lymphoproliferative syndrome and non-Hodgkin's lymphomas. Here we report that SH2D1A is expressed in tonsillar B cells and in some B lymphoblastoid cell lines, where CD150 coprecipitates with SH2D1A and SHIP. However, in SH2D1A-negative B cell lines, including B cell lines from X-linked lymphoproliferative syndrome patients, CD150 associates only with SHP-2. SH2D1A protein levels are up-regulated by CD40 cross-linking and down-regulated by B cell receptor ligation. Using GST-fusion proteins with single replacements of tyrosine at Y269F, Y281F, Y307F, or Y327F in the CD150 cytoplasmic tail, we found that the same phosphorylated Y281 and Y327 are essential for both SHP-2 and SHIP binding. The presence of SH2D1A facilitates binding of SHIP to CD150. Apparently, SH2D1A may function as a regulator of alternative interactions of CD150 with SHP-2 or SHIP via a novel TxYxxV/I motif (immunoreceptor tyrosine-based switch motif (ITSM)). Multiple sequence alignments revealed the presence of this TxYxxV/I motif not only in CD2 subfamily members but also in the cytoplasmic domains of the members of the SHP-2 substrate 1, sialic acid-binding Ig-like lectin, carcinoembryonic Ag, and leukocyte-inhibitory receptor families.

Fas (CD95) and Fas ligand (CD95L) are an interacting receptor-ligand pair required for immune homeostasis. Lymphocyte activation results in the upregulation of Fas expression and the acquisition of sensitivity to FasL-mediated apoptosis. Although Fas upregulation is central to the preservation of immunologic tolerance, little is known about the molecular machinery underlying this process. To investigate the events involved in activation-induced Fas upregulation, we have examined mRNA accumulation, fas promoter activity, and protein expression in the Jurkat T-cell line treated with phorbol myristate acetate and ionomycin (P/I), pharmacological mimics of T-cell receptor activation. Although resting Jurkat cells express Fas, Fas mRNA was induced approximately 10-fold in 2 h upon P/I stimulation. Using sequential deletion mutants of the human fas promoter in transient transfection assays, we identified a 47-bp sequence (positions -306 to -260 relative to the ATG) required for activation-driven fas upregulation. Sequence analysis revealed the presence of a previously unrecognized composite binding site for both the Sp1 and NF-kappaB transcription factors at positions -295 to -286. Electrophoretic mobility shift assay (EMSA) and supershift analyses of this region documented constitutive binding of Sp1 in unactivated nuclear extracts and inducible binding of p50-p65 NF-kappaB heterodimers after P/I activation. Sp1 and NF-kappaB transcription factor binding was shown to be mutually exclusive by EMSA displacement studies with purified recombinant Sp1 and recombinant p50. The functional contribution of the kappaB-Sp1 composite site in P/I-inducible fas promoter activation was verified by using kappaB-Sp1 concatamers (-295 to -286) in a thymidine kinase promoter-driven reporter construct and native promoter constructs in Jurkat cells overexpressing IkappaB-alpha. Site-directed mutagenesis of the critical guanine nucleotides in the kappaB-Sp1 element documented the essential role of this site in activation-dependent fas promoter induction.

Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is the most common liver disease in industrialized countries and may proceed to steatohepatitis (NASH). Apoptosis and free fatty acid (FFA)-induced lipotoxicity are important features of NASH pathogenesis. We have shown a hepatoprotective effect of adiponectin in steatotic livers of hepatitis C virus (HCV) patients and recent data links bile acid (BA) metabolism to the pathogenesis of NAFLD. The aim of this study was to identify potential interactions between BA and FFA metabolism in NAFLD. Liver biopsies and serum samples from 113 morbidly obese patients receiving bariatric surgery, healthy individuals, and moderately obese NAFLD patients were studied. Serum FFA, BA, and M30 were increased in NASH versus simple steatosis, while adiponectin was significantly decreased. The NAFLD activity score (NAS) score correlated with BA levels and reversely with adiponectin. Adiponectin reversely correlated with CD95/Fas messenger RNA (mRNA) and hepatocellular apoptosis. The BA transporter high-affinity Na+ /taurocholate cotransporter (NTCP) and the BA synthesizing enzyme cholesterol 7 alpha-hydroxylase (CYP7A1) were significantly up-regulated in obese patients and hepatoma cells exposed to FFA. Up-regulation of NTCP and CYP7A1 indicate failure to activate small heterodimer partner (SHP) upon farnesoid X receptor (FXR) stimulation by increasing BA concentrations. In line with the NAS score, adiponectin levels were reversely correlated with BA levels. Adiponectin correlated with NTCP and affects Cyp7A1 expression both in vivo and in vitro.

CONCLUSIONS

BA synthesis and serum BA levels correlated with disease severity in NAFLD, while adiponectin is reversely correlated. FFA exposure prevented SHP-mediated repression of NTCP and Cyp7A1 expression, which lead to increased BA synthesis and uptake. In NASH, BA accumulation induced hepatocyte cell death and late FXR activation failed to prevent hepatocyte injury due to decreased adiponectin levels. Early treatment with FXR ligands and/or adiponectin-receptor agonists might prevent NASH.

CD8(+) T cells (CTL) are important effector cells for virus control and immunopathology after primary infection with respiratory syncytial virus (RSV). To investigate the effector mechanisms involved, we set up an adoptive transfer model, in which effector CTL specific for p82-90 of RSV M2 were generated in vivo, followed by short-term restimulation in vitro and transfusion into infected recipients. A total of 4 x 10(4) donor-derived p82-specific CTL homing to the lung within 4 days after transfusion were sufficient to completely eliminate a virusinoculum of 1.5 x 10(6) pfu. This was accompanied by significant lung pathology. Surprisingly, virus control and immunopathology proceeded unimpaired when donor cells lacking perforin, CD95 ligand or TNF were transfused. By contrast, treatment of recipient mice with a neutralizing antibody against IFN-gamma or transfusion of IFN-gamma-deficient effector CTL largely abolished virus control and significantly reduced CD8(+) T cell-mediated pathology. In IFN-gamma-deficient mice, high-dose primary infection experiments revealed attenuated immunopathology, but only slightly delayedvirus clearance, suggesting that other cells and molecules can partly substitute for the effects of CTL-derived IFN-gamma on virus clearance. These experiments identify IFN-gamma as a key molecule in RSV-induced immunopathology and in CD8(+) T cell-mediated control of RSV infection.

CD4(+)CD25(+) regulatory T cells (Treg) are potent immunosuppressive cells active in controlling normal pathological immune responses. The mechanisms of this suppression have been investigated under various conditions. In this report, tumor necrosis factor-related apoptosis inducing ligand (TRAIL)/death receptor 5 (DR5) was explored as one of the pivotal factors for the suppression and cytotoxicity induced by CD4(+)CD25(+) Treg. Cell death was involved in the suppression induced by activated CD4(+)CD25(+) Treg in vitro. The induction of CD4(+) T cell death was not mediated by the CD95/CD95L pathway, but rather depended upon the upregulation of TRAIL in the Treg. Blocking the TRAIL/DR5 pathway resulted in a significant reduction of the suppressive activity as well as the cytotoxic effects of Treg in vitro. Activated Treg displayed TRAIL-dependent cytotoxicity against CD4(+) T cells in vivo. The prolonged survival of allogeneic skin grafts induced by Treg was inhibited by DR5-blocking antibodies. Our findings suggest that the TRAIL/DR5 pathway is one of the mechanisms used by Treg to regulate immune responses both in vitro and in vivo.

OBJECTIVE

Ligation of CD95 (APO-1/Fas) by antibody or CD95 ligand (CD95L) induces apoptosis and, in some cell lines, growth. Normal colonic epithelial cells constitutively express CD95. The function of CD95 on colonocytes is unknown. The aim of this study was to elucidate the role of epithelial CD95 in the normal colon and in ulcerative colitis.

METHODS

Intact colonic crypts were isolated, and the effects of CD95 ligation in vitro were studied. CD95L-expressing cells and apoptotic cells were detected in situ by RNA hybridization, immunohistochemistry, and DNA nick end labeling.

RESULTS

On CD95 ligation, isolated colonic crypt cells underwent apoptosis within 4 hours. No growth-promoting effect was observed. In normal colon, CD95L expression was restricted to few mononuclear cells randomly scattered within the lamina propria. Therefore, the CD95-CD95L system is very unlikely to operate in the regeneration of the colonic epithelium. However, in ulcerative colitis, the number of interstitial CD95L+ cells and the frequency of apoptosis in both lamina propria and epithelium were increased considerably. Further, a focal association of subepithelial CD95L+ mononuclear cells and epithelial apoptosis was observed.

CONCLUSIONS

In ulcerative colitis, soluble CD95L-mediated epithelial apoptosis may lead to a breakdown of the epithelial barrier function facilitating the invasion of pathogenic microorganisms.

Apoptosis of peripheral blood T cells has been suggested to play an important role in the pathogenesis of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection. Spontaneous, Fas (CD95)-induced and activation-induced T cell apoptosis have all been described in peripheral blood mononuclear cell cultures of HIV-infected individuals. We have previously shown that activation-induced T cell apoptosis is Fas independent in peripheral blood T cells from HIV+ individuals. In this study, we extend and confirm these observations by using an inhibitor of interleukin-1 beta converting enzyme (ICE) homologues. We show that z-VAD-fmk, a tripeptide inhibitor of ICE homologues, can inhibit Fas-induced apoptosis of peripheral blood CD4(+) and CD8+ T cells from asymptomatic HIV+ individuals. z-VAD-fmk also inhibited activation (anti-CD3)- induced CD4+ and CD8+ T cell apoptosis (AICD) in some but not all asymptomatic HIV+ individuals. Apoptosis was measured by multiparameter flow cytometry. The z-VAD-fmk inhibitor also enhanced survival of T cells in anti-Fas or anti-CD3 antibody-treated cultures and inhibited DNA fragmentation. AICD that could be inhibited by z-VAD-fmk was Fas independent and could be inhibited with a blocking monoclonal antibody to tumor necrosis factor-related apoptosis-inducing ligand (TRAIL), a recently described member of the TNF/nerve growth factor ligand family. The above findings show that Fas-induced T cell apoptosis is ICE dependent in HIV infection. AICD can be blocked by ICE inhibitors in some patients, and this AICD is mediated by TRAIL. These results show that TRAIL can be a mediator of AICD in T cells. These different mechanisms of peripheral blood T cell apoptosis may play different roles in the pathogenesis of HIV infection.

Astrocytes exert many active roles in brain homeostasis, potentially including the regulation of immune reactions. They possess a substantial aptitude for plasticity and, indeed, functional and phenotypic changes are frequently encountered in reactive gliosis observed in brain injuries. The significance of reactive astrocytes is still poorly defined, but it is clear that these cells are an important source of cytokines in inflamed brain. How tumor necrosis factor (TNF) and TNF-receptor family members contribute to this reaction is an interesting issue that is currently being explored. It was previously shown that reactive astrocytes express high levels of Fas (CD95) and respond to Fas ligand (CD95L) by apoptosis or IL-8 production. TWEAK (Apo-3 ligand) is a recently identified member of the TNF family that is produced mainly by leukocytes that can infiltrate the inflamed brain and thus influence astrocyte behavior. Here we show that human astrocytes derived from different regions of the brain specifically bind TWEAK and are totally resistant to TWEAK mediated apoptosis. In addition, high amounts of IL-8 and IL-6 were secreted by astrocytes after TWEAK exposure. Finally, expression of cell surface molecules involved in the propagation and/or maintenance of brain inflammation was determined. TWEAK significantly increased ICAM-1 expression on astrocytes, whereas no modification was detected in the expression of Fas, TNFRI, B7-1, or MHC molecules. In conclusion, the proinflammatory effects induced by TWEAK on astrocytes in culture recapitulate many characteristics of reactive astrocytes observed in vivo, suggesting that TWEAK could play a significant role in brain inflammation.

Death receptors are a subfamily of the tumor necrosis factor (TNF) receptor subfamily. They are characterized by a death domain (DD) motif within their intracellular domain, which is required for the induction of apoptosis. Fas-associated death domain protein (FADD) is reported to be the universal adaptor used by death receptors to recruit and activate the initiator caspase-8. CD95, TNF-related apoptosis-inducing ligand (TRAIL-R1), and TRAIL-R2 bind FADD directly, whereas recruitment to TNF-R1 is indirect through another adaptor TNF receptor-associated death domain protein (TRADD). TRADD also binds two other adaptors receptor-interacting protein (RIP) and TNF-receptor-associated factor 2 (TRAF2), which are required for TNF-induced NF-kappaB and c-Jun N-terminal kinase activation, respectively. Analysis of the native TNF signaling complex revealed the recruitment of RIP, TRADD, and TRAF2 but not FADD or caspase-8. TNF failed to induce apoptosis in FADD- and caspase-8-deficient Jurkat cells, indicating that these apoptotic mediators were required for TNF-induced apoptosis. In an in vitro binding assay, the intracellular domain of TNF-R1 bound TRADD, RIP, and TRAF2 but did not bind FADD or caspase-8. Under the same conditions, the intracellular domain of both CD95 and TRAIL-R2 bound both FADD and caspase-8. Taken together these results suggest that apoptosis signaling by TNF is distinct from that induced by CD95 and TRAIL. Although caspase-8 and FADD are obligatory for TNF-mediated apoptosis, they are not recruited to a TNF-induced membrane-bound receptor signaling complex as occurs during CD95 or TRAIL signaling, but instead must be activated elsewhere within the cell.

The mechanism by which HIV-1 induces CD4(+) T cell death is not known. A fundamental issue is whether HIV-1 primarily induces direct killing of infected cells or indirectly causes death of uninfected bystander cells. This question was studied using a reporter virus system in which infected cells are marked with the cell surface protein placental alkaline phosphatase (PLAP). Infection by HIV-PLAP of peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) and T cell lines leads to rapid depletion of CD4(+) T cells and induction of apoptosis. The great majority of HIV-induced T cell death in vitro involves direct loss of infected cells rather than indirect effects on uninfected bystander cells. Because of its proposed role in HIV-induced cell death, we also examined the Fas (CD95/Apo1) pathway in killing of T cells by HIV-1. Infected PBMCs or CEM cells display no increase in surface Fas relative to uninfected cells. In addition, HIV-1 kills CEM and Jurkat T cells in the presence of a caspase inhibitor that completely blocks Fas-mediated apoptosis. HIV-1 also depletes CD4+ T cells in PBMCs from patients who have a genetically defective Fas pathway. These results suggest that HIV-1 induces direct apoptosis of infected cells and kills T cells by a Fas-independent mechanism.